The Influence of Lifestyle Behaviors on the Incidence of Frailty.

BACKGROUND: Frailty is a clinical state defined as an increase in an individual's vulnerability to developing adverse health-related outcomes. OBJECTIVES: We propose that healthy behaviors could lower the incidence of frailty. The aim is to describe the association between healthy behaviors (physical activity, vaccination, tobacco use, and cancer screening) and the incidence of frailty. DESIGN: This is a secondary longitudinal analysis of the Mexican Health and Aging Study (MHAS) cohort. SETTING: MHAS is a population-based cohort, of community-dwelling Mexican older adults. With five assessments currently available, for purposes of this work, 2012 and 2015 waves were used. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 6,087 individuals 50-year or older were included. MEASUREMENTS: Frailty was defined using a 39-item frailty index. Healthy behaviors were assessed with questions available in MHAS. Individuals without frailty in 2012 were followed-up three years in order to determine their frailty incidence, and its association with healthy behaviors. Multivariate logistic regression models were used to assess the odds of frailty occurring according to the four health-related behaviors mentioned above. RESULTS: At baseline (2012), 55.2% of the subjects were male, the mean age was 62.2 (SD ± 8.5) years old. The overall incidence (2015) of frailty was 37.8%. Older adults physically active had a lower incidence of frailty (48.9% vs. 42.2%, p< 0.0001). Of the activities assessed in the adjusted multivariate models, physical activity was the only variable that was independently associated with a lower risk of frailty (odds ratio: 0.79, 95% confidence interval 0.71-0.88, p< 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Physically active older adults had a lower 3-year incidence of frailty even after adjusting for confounding variables. Increasing physical activity could therefore represent a strategy for reducing the incidence of frailty. Other so-called healthy behaviors were not associated with incident frailty, however there is still uncertainty on the interpretation of those results.

Allostatic Load as a Biological Substrate to Intrinsic Capacity: A Secondary Analysis of CRELES.

OBJECTIVES: Intrinsic capacity (IC) is one of the latest views of positive aging. In its current status lacks a biological substrate amenable to be intervened. The aim of this study was to determine the association of allostatic load (AL) with IC. DESIGN: We present a cross-sectional analysis of the Costa Rican Longevity and Healthy Aging Study. SETTING: This report is from a representative sample of Costa Rican older adults; one of the countries that integrate the Central America region. PARTICIPANTS: 2,827, 60-year or older community-dwelling individuals. METHODS: An IC index was gathered and validated, including different domains: cognitive, psychological, sensory, vitality and locomotion. AL was integrated with: blood pressure, abdominal obesity, body mass index, HDL-cholesterol, glycosylated hemoglobin, DHEAS, cortisol, epinephrine and norepinephrine. AL was grouped in three categories according to the number of abnormal biomarkers (0-1, 2-3 and ≥4). Chronic diseases, socioeconomic level, sex and age were the adjusting variables. Ordinal logistic regression models were estimated in order to test the strength of the association. RESULTS: From a total sample of 1,888 individuals, 51% (n=962) were women, 36.4% were in the 60-69 age category. The mean score of the IC index was of 6.6 (±2.2). Odds ratio (OR) of the adjusted models were significant for the group of those with 2-3 abnormal biomarkers of AL (OR 0.67, p=0.007) and also for those with ≥4 (OR 0.56, p=0.002), when compared to the reference group of AL (0-1 abnormal biomarkers). CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: AL showed an incremental association with IC, even when adjusted for factors such as socioeconomic status and chronic diseases. Targeting therapeutically AL could potentially improve IC in older adults and therefore decreasing the progression to disability or to overt dependency.

Systems biology and network pharmacology of frailty reveal novel epigenetic targets and mechanisms.

Frailty is an age-associated condition, characterized by an inappropriate response to stress that results in a higher frequency of adverse outcomes (e.g., mortality, institutionalization and disability). Some light has been shed over its genetic background, but this is still a matter of debate. In the present study, we used network biology to analyze the interactome of frailty-related genes at different levels to relate them with pathways, clinical deficits and drugs with potential therapeutic implications. Significant pathways involved in frailty: apoptosis, proteolysis, muscle proliferation, and inflammation; genes as FN1, APP, CREBBP, EGFR playing a role as hubs and bottlenecks in the interactome network and epigenetic factors as HIST1H3 cluster and miR200 family were also involved. When connecting clinical deficits and genes, we identified five clusters that give insights into the biology of frailty: cancer, glucocorticoid receptor, TNF-α, myostatin, angiotensin converter enzyme, ApoE, interleukine-12 and -18. Finally, when performing network pharmacology analysis of the target nodes, some compounds were identified as potentially therapeutic (e.g., epigallocatechin gallate and antirheumatic agents); while some other substances appeared to be toxicants that may be involved in the development of this condition.

TWO-WAY Bridge between Muscular Dysfunction and Cognitive Impairment: Secondary Analyses of SABE - Bogota Study.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: Muscular dysfunction and cognitive impairment are both disabling states, affecting especially the elderly. Thus, are important subjects of research. Our goal is to describe the association between these two entities in the elderly. METHODS: This is a secondary analysis from the SABE 2012 Bogota survey, which is a cross-sectional study. We define muscular dysfunction as an abnormal result in gait speed and/or handgrip strength tasks. Cognitive impairment was defined as an abnormal result in Mini Mental State Examination. Other independent variables were measured. RESULTS: A total of 1,564 older adults were included in the analysis. Cognitive impairment showed statistically significant association with both low handgrip strength (OR: 2.25; CI 1.52 - 3.33) and low gait speed (OR: 2.76; CI 1.83 - 4.15) in the adjusted model. CONCLUSION: In older adults, muscular dysfunction is associated with cognitive impairment. New studies should address the causality and temporality of this relationship.

Validity of Knee-Estimated Height to Assess Standing Height in Older Adults: A Secondary Longitudinal Analysis of the Mexican Health and Aging Study.

OBJECTIVE: The main objective was to test the validity of height estimated by knee height in Mexican older adults, as a surrogate for standing height. DESIGN: Cohort study. SETTING: Data were drawn from the first and third waves of the Mexican Health and Aging Study. PARTICIPANTS: Included participants were community-dwelling 50-year or older adults with measured height at baseline and in follow-up. Subjects with a lower limb fracture in the follow-up were excluded. MEASUREMENTS: Main measurements were baseline standing height and 11-year follow-up and knee-estimated height in follow-up. Population specific equations were used to estimate standing height from knee height. Comparisons between baseline standing height and knee-derived height were done with simple correlations, limits of agreement (Bland-Altman plot) and Deming regressions. RESULTS: A total of 136 50-year or older adults were followed-up for eleven years, with a mean age of 60. There was a positive correlation between knee-estimated height and baseline standing height of 0.895 (p<0.001) for men and of 0.845 (p<0.001) for women. Limits of agreement for men were from -6.95cm to 7.09cm and for women from -6.58cm to 8.44cm. CONCLUSION: According to our results, knee-estimated height could be used interchangeably with standing height in Mexican older adults, and these results might apply also to other populations.

Calf circumference predicts mobility disability: A secondary analysis of the Mexican health and ageing study.

INTRODUCTION: Calf circumference is a surrogate measurement of muscle mass. However, there is scarce evidence on its validity in predicting adverse outcomes such as mobility disability. The aim of this report is to determine if calf circumference could predict incident mobility disability in Mexican 60-year or older adults. METHODS: This is a secondary analysis of the Mexican Health and Aging Study and in particular of its two first waves. Sixty-year or older adults without mobility disability in the first assessment were included and followed-up for two years. Calf circumference quartile groups were compared to test the difference of incident mobility disability. Logistic regression models were fitted to test the independent association when including confounding variables. RESULTS: A total of 745 older adults were assessed, from which 24.4% of the older adults developed mobility disability at follow-up. A calf circumference > 38 cm was associated with a higher risk of developing mobility disability, even after adjustment in the multivariate model, with an odds ratio 0.55 (95% confidence interval 0.31-0.99, P = 0.049). CONCLUSIONS: High calf circumference in Mexican older adults is independently associated with incident mobility disability. This could reflect the impact of adverse health conditions such as obesity (with high fat tissue) or edema. Further research should aim at testing these results in different populations.

Frailty Across Age Groups.

BACKGROUND: The implementation of an aging biomarker into clinical practice is under debate. The Frailty Index is a model of deficit accumulation and has shown to accurately capture frailty in older adults, thus bridging biological with clinical practice. OBJECTIVES: To describe the association of socio-demographic characteristics and the Frailty Index in different age groups (from 20 to over one hundred years) in a representative sample of Mexican subjects. DESIGN: Cross-sectional analysis. SETTING: Nationwide and population-representative survey. PARTICIPANTS: Adults 20-years and older interviewed during the last Mexican National Health and Nutrition Survey (2012). MEASUREMENTS: A 30-item Frailty Index following standard construction was developed. Multi-level regression models were performed to test the associations of the Frailty Index with multiple socio-demographic characteristics across age groups. RESULTS: A total of 29,504 subjects was analyzed. The 30-item Frailty Index showed the highest scores in the older age groups, especially in women. No sociodemographic variable was associated with the Frailty Index in all the studied age groups. However, employment, economic income, and smoking status were more consistently found across age groups. CONCLUSIONS: To our knowledge, this is the first report describing the Frailty Index in a representative large sample of a Latin American country. Increasing age and gender were closely associated with a higher score.

Sarcopenia prevalence using simple measurements and population-based cutoff values.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the prevalence of sarcopenia in Mexican older adults using simple measurements and tailored cutoff values for the components of the European Working Group on Sarcopenia in Older People algorithm. MATERIAL AND METHODS: This study used cross-sectional data from the third wave (2012) of the Mexican Health and Aging Study. Gait speed and handgrip strength cutoff values were tailored for Mexican older adults. Muscle mass was estimated by a formula, which uses simple anthropometry and demographic characteristics. RESULTS: From the total of 1,238 older adults included in our study, sarcopenia prevalence was 11% (n = 137). When categorizing sarcopenia, 39.1% (n = 484) had pre-sarcopenia, 8.3% (n = 103) moderate sarcopenia, and 2.75% (n = 34) had severe sarcopenia. CONCLUSIONS: Sarcopenia is a common problem in Mexican older adults, and its frequency along with its severity increases with age. Tailored cutoff values could help in identifying those subjects that could have benefited from intervention.

La importancia de la investigación para el bienestar del adulto mayor / The importance of research for the well-being of the elderly / A importância da investigação para o bem-estar do idoso

El proceso de envejecimiento no es sinónimo de disminución en la función del cuerpo humano -o de cualquier otro organismo vivo- sin embargo, sí lleva consigo el incremento en la frecuencia de enfermedades crónicas como la diabetes mellitus y la hipertensión arterial sistémica. Hoy por hoy, uno de los grandes retos de la investigación en salud de este grupo de edad es el conocer cómo es envejecer con una enfermedad crónica, cuáles son los efectos de las complicaciones de la misma, qué impacto tiene el uso prolongado de medicamentos, cuál es el papel de las enfermedades crónicas en la pérdida de la funcionalidad; entre otros muchos temas en los que aún no se tiene la suficiente información que pudieran llevar a la formulación de planes de acción concretos. La salida más común en los últimos años ha sido llevar a cabo las mismas acciones que se utilizan en adultos más jóvenes, una estrategia que no ha sido efectiva y afortunadamente se está abandonando por el personal de salud. Existen algunos ejemplos en adultos mayores mexicanos, en donde se ha evidenciado que implementar una estrategia de atención específica para ellos puede mejorar su estado de salud.

RISK FACTORS FOR SLOW GAIT SPEED: A NESTED CASE-CONTROL SECONDARY ANALYSIS OF THE MEXICAN HEALTH AND AGING STUDY.

BACKGROUND: Physical performance tests play a major role in the geriatric assessment. In particular, gait speed has shown to be useful for predicting adverse outcomes. However, risk factors for slow gait speed (slowness) are not clearly described. OBJECTIVES: To determine risk factors associated with slowness in Mexican older adults. DESIGN: A two-step process was adopted for exploring the antecedent risk factors of slow gait speed. First, the cut-off values for gait speed were determined in a representative sample of Mexican older adults. Then, antecedent risk factors of slow gait speed (defined using the identified cut-points) were explored in a nested, cohort case-control study. SETTING PARTICIPANTS: One representative sample of a cross-sectional survey for the first step and the Mexican Health and Aging Study (a cohort characterized by a 10-year follow-up). MEASUREMENTS: A 4-meter usual gait speed test was conducted. Lowest gender and height-stratified groups were considered as defining slow gait speed. Sociodemographic characteristics, comorbidities, psychological and health-care related variables were explored to find those associated with the subsequent development of slow gait speed. Unadjusted and adjusted logistic regression models were performed. RESULTS: In the final model, age, diabetes, hypertension, and history of fractures were associated with the development of slow gait speed. CONCLUSIONS: Early identification of subjects at risk of developing slow gait speed may halt the path to disability due to the robust association of this physical performance test with functional decline.

Gait Speed and Handgrip Strength as Predictors of Incident Disability in Mexican Older Adults.

Physical performance tests are associated with different adverse outcomes in older people. The objective of this study was to test the association between handgrip strength and gait speed with incident disability in community-dwelling, well-functioning, Mexican older adults (age ≥70 years). Incident disability was defined as the onset of any difficulty in basic or instrumental activities of daily living. Of a total of 133 participants, 52.6% (n=70) experienced incident disability during one year of follow-up. Significant associations of handgrip strength (odds ratio [OR] 0.96, 95% confidence interval [95%CI] 0.93-0.99) and gait speed (OR 0.27, 95%CI 0.07-0.99) with incident disability were reported. The inclusion of covariates in the models reduced the statistical significance of the associations without substantially modifying the magnitude of them. Handgrip strength and gait speed are independently associated with incident disability in Mexican older adults.

Mortality as an adverse outcome of sarcopenia.

Sarcopenia has an important impact in elderly. Recently the European Working Group on Sarcopenia in Older People (EWGSOP) defined sarcopenia as the loss of muscle mass plus low muscle strength or low physical performance. Lack of clinical sounding outcomes (ie external validity), is one of the flaws of this algorithm. The aim of our study was to determine the association of sarcopenia and mortality in a group of Mexican elderly. A total of 345 elderly were recruited in Mexico City, and followed up for three years. The EWGSOP algorithm was integrated by: gait speed, grip strength and calf circumference. Other covariates were assessed in order to test the independent association of sarcopenia with mortality. Of the 345 subjects, 53.3% were women; with a mean age of 78.5 (SD 7) years. During the three year follow-up a total of 43 (12.4%) subjects died. Age, cognition, ADL, IADL, health self-perception, ischemic heart disease and sarcopenia were associated in the bivariate analysis with survival. Negative predictive value for sarcopenia regarding mortality was of 90%. Kaplan-Meier curves along with their respective log-rank test were significant for sarcopenia. The components of the final Cox-regression multivariate model were age, ischemic heart disease, ADL and sarcopenia. Adjusted HR for age was 3.24 (CI 95% 1.55-6.78 p 0.002), IHD 5.07 (CI 95% 1.89-13.59 p 0.001), health self-perception 5.07 (CI 95% 1.9-13.6 p 0.001), ADL 0.75 (CI 95% 0.56-0.99 p 0.048) and sarcopenia 2.39 (CI 95% 1.05-5.43 p 0.037).

The Coyoacán Cohort Study: Design, Methodology, and Participants' Characteristics of a Mexican Study on Nutritional and Psychosocial Markers of Frailty.

BACKGROUND: "Frailty" has emerged as a condition associated with an increased risk of functional decline among the elderly, which may be differentiated from aging, disability, and co-morbidities. OBJECTIVE: The Mexican Study of Nutritional and Psychosocial Markers of Frailty among Community-Dwelling Elderly has emerged to help answer many questions about frailty among the older adults. This report presents the design of the study and baseline data of its participants. DESIGN: The "Coyoacan cohort" is a longitudinal observational study developed in Mexico City. PARTICIPANTS: A representative sample of 1,294 non-institutionalized men and women aged 70 years and older were randomly recruited to undergo a face-to-face interview and a comprehensive geriatric assessment (including clinical evaluations and blood samples) between 2008 and 2009. MEASUREMENTS: Data collected included socio-demographic and economic characteristics, medical history, oral health, drug use, cognitive function and mood, nutritional status, physical performance and functional status, physical activity, quality of life, social networks, and biological data. Frailty was defined as the presence of ≥3 of the following components: slowness, poor muscle strength, low physical activity, exhaustion and unintentional weight loss. RESULTS: A total of 1,124 participants completed the interview. The mean age was 79.5 ± 7.1 years, and 55.9% were female. Nine hundred and forty-five subjects completed the clinical evaluation and 743 blood samples were collected. The baseline prevalence of frailty was 14.1%. CONCLUSIONS: Understanding the medical, biological, and environmental factors that contribute to the phenomenon of frailty is the goal of the current research in the field.